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Stronka zawiera wiele interesujących ciekawostek. Może byc bardzo pomocna przy nauce wymowy. Z opcji trzeba wybrac jezyk (np. wloski) i predkosc czytania tekstu.
W wolnym polu trzeba wpisac slowo lub tekst (lub skopiowac skads i wkleic)a nastepnie kliknac na "say it".


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PostNapisane: 2 maja 2010, 18:21 
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Na początek 2 artykuły o stwardnieniu rosianym:
sclerosi multipla
La sclerosi multipla è una frequente causa di disabilità acuta e cronica in persone di giovane e media età. Generalmente si manifesta per la prima volta tra i 15 e i 50 anni con una massima incidenza in giovani adulti, colpendo due volte più donne che uomini. Non si conoscono cause specifiche, anche se fattori genetici sembrano coinvolti nella predisposizione a sviluppare la malattia. Essa è dovuta alla nascita spontanea e acuta di circoscritti focolai infiammatori in cui il sistema immunitario promuove un attacco (reazione autoimmune) verso una proteina (mielina) del sistema nervoso centrale. L'infiammazione acuta rallenta la trasmissione degli impulsi elettrici lungo le connessioni nervose, preservandone comunque la struttura. Nei primi anni della malattia l'infiammazione spesso regredisce spontaneamente, con un conseguente miglioramento o una remissione completa dei sintomi. Per questa dinamica la forma clinica più frequente è quella a 'ricadute e remissioni'. Con un maggior numero di ricadute le remissioni sono meno complete, a causa di un danneggiamento anche strutturale del tessuto nervoso (il cosiddetto danno 'assonale' in quanto degenerano gli assoni che fanno parte dei neuroni stessi). In questo modo, in una parte dei pazienti si può manifestare un lento peggioramento anche senza nuove ricadute (decorso secondariamente cronico progressivo). Solo una minoranza dei pazienti presenta dalle prime fasi della malattia un peggioramento lento e continuo (decorso primariamente cronico progressivo).

I sintomi dipendono dalla localizzazione dei focolai infiammatori; possono essere colpite tutte le regioni del sistema nervoso centrale che contengono mielina (encefalo, nervi ottici e midollo spinale). Un frequente sintomo iniziale è un transitorio annebbiamento della vista di un occhio (neurite del nervo ottico o neurite retrobulbare). Altri sintomi frequenti sono la visione sdoppiata (diplopia), disturbi dell'equilibrio e della coordinazione dei movimenti (atassia), tremore, disturbi dell'articolazione delle parole (disartria), paralisi e spasticità muscolari e disturbi della sensibilità, con un'alterazione della sensibilità cutanea spesso accompagnata da formicolio o sensazioni sgradevoli al tatto. Mentre una parte dei pazienti ha poche ricadute e si stabilizza spontaneamente con scarsi sintomi o nessuno, in altri la malattia progredisce causando una graduale disabilità con la minaccia di una grave compromissione o perdita della capacità di camminare; possono, inoltre, verificarsi difficoltà del controllo della vescica e disturbi della funzione sessuale.

La diagnosi della sclerosi multipla avviene secondo criteri clinici che sono tati ripetutamente modificati negli ultimi anni, essenzialmente richiede oltre alla presenza dei sintomi clinici la presenza di lesioni tipiche nella risonanza magnetica e la presenza delle cosiddette 'bande oligoclonali', segno della produzione di autoanticorpi nel liquor cerebrospinale.

La farmacoterapia dei sintomi acuti si basa sul controllo dell'infiammazione acuta con i corticosteroidi (preferibilmente per pochi giorni ad alto dosaggio, tradizionalmente endovena, ma secondo uno studio recente anche per via orale), che abbreviano la durata e accelerano la remissione dei sintomi. In questo modo si ha un minimo di effetti collaterali, al contrario di quello che avviene nella terapia prolungata con corticosteroidi, che non è indicata nella sclerosi multipla in quanto inefficace. Nei casi in cui sintomi acuti non regrediscono in modo sufficiente con la terapia cortisonica, la plasmaferesi (un tipo di dialisi che elimina gli anticorpi dal siero) può essere impiegata con dimostrato beneficio.

La ricerca clinica degli ultimi anni ha prodotto un significativo progresso nella dimostrazione dell'efficacia di farmaci preventivi diretti a ridurre la frequenza delle ricadute e a rallentare il decorso clinico. Sono farmaci immunomodulatori, perché riducono l'intensità con la quale il sistema immunitario attacca il sistema nervoso. Recenti studi indicano che un inizio precoce della terapia immunomodulatore è importante nel prevenire o ritardare lo sviluppo di nuove lesioni, sintomi e disabilità e che non è più giustificato un generale atteggiamento di 'attesa' prima di iniziare la terapia. Questo vale per la maggior parte dei casi di una 'sindrome clinica isolata - CIS' in quanto la grande maggioranza dei CIS evolvono in una sclerosi multipla definitiva. Vale poi in particolare nei casi che già all'esordio dimostrano un alto numero di lesioni o lesioni attive nella risonanza magnetica, anche quando i sintomi acuti sono in via di remissione.

I farmaci più frequentemente usati sono i beta-interferoni, molecole fisiologiche già presenti nell'organismo che regolano le risposte immunitarie. Esistono tre preparazioni farmacologiche (beta-1a: Avonex®, Rebif®; beta-1b: Betaferon®) che sono state studiate in pazienti con forme a ricaduta e remissione; per una preparazione (Betaferon®) è stata dimostrata l'efficacia anche nelle forme secondariamente croniche progressive. Tutte le preparazioni riducono la frequenza delle ricadute, rallentano la progressione della malattia e riducono il numero di focolai infiammatori visibili con la risonanza magnetica. Un altro farmaco immunomodulatore è il copolimero 1 o glatiramer acetato (Copaxone®) che consiste di una miscela di aminoacidi i quali simulano la composizione di una proteina della mielina, riducendo così la reazione del sistema immunitario contro la mielina del sistema nervoso. Interferoni e glatiramer hanno efficacia comparabile, il vantaggio del glatiramer è di avere meno effetti collaterali degli interferoni e di essere una terapia in genere molto ben tollerata. Secondo uno studio di recente pubblicazione (ottobre 2009) il glatiramer è effiace anche nelle fasi iniziali della malattia e può come gli interferoni essere impiegato come terapia precoce. Ancora più efficace è il natalizumab (Tysabri®), un anticorpo che inibisce la migrazione dei leucociti nel tessuto nervoso. Per il rischio di rari ma seri effetti collaterali il suo uso è limitato a pazienti che non hanno sufficiente beneficio con interferone o glatiramer o per casi ad evoluzione grave e rapida. Il natalizumab respinge sempre di più il mitoxantrone, farmaco chemioterapico finora usato con questa indicazione. In situazioni particolari si usano anche altri farmaci immunosoppressori (azatioprina, metotrexate, ciclofosfamide) che bloccano globalmente la replicazione cellulare, rallentando così anche la reazione del sistema immunitario. Essendo farmaci potenzialmente tossici, usati anche nella chemioterapia dei tumori, sono riservati a casi di sclerosi multipla con progressione rapida e disabilitante che non rispondono sufficientemente ad un farmaco immunomodulatore. La selezione, prescrizione e il monitoraggio delle terapie immunomodulatori e immunosoppressive richiede particolare esperienza ed è (anche per il costo elevato delle terapie) riservata ai centri per la sclerosi multipla.

Il prossimo futuro vedrà la disponibilità di nuovi farmaci immuno-modulatori (fingolimod atteso per la seconda metà del 2010, cladribina per ora ritardata ad almeno il 2011, laquinimod in seguito) che potranno, al contrario degli interferoni e del glatiramer, essere somministrati per via orale, nel caso della cladribina addirittura per brevi cicli poche volte all'anno. Sono ancora incerte le modalità con cui saranno usati (monoterapia o in associazione ad altre terapie). Maggiore chiarezza su questo punto forniranno i risultati di grandi studi clinici in corso che daranno anche dati più solidi sugli effetti collaterali dei nuovi farmaci di cui il laquinimod sembra il più tollerato, ma forse anche il meno efficace.
http://www.neurologia.it/sclerosi_multi ... _info.html
What is Multiple Sclerosis?


An unpredictable disease of the central nervous system, multiple sclerosis (MS) can range from relatively benign to somewhat disabling to devastating, as communication between the brain and other parts of the body is disrupted. Many investigators believe MS to be an autoimmune disease -- one in which the body, through its immune system, launches a defensive attack against its own tissues. In the case of MS, it is the nerve-insulating myelin that comes under assault. Such assaults may be linked to an unknown environmental trigger, perhaps a virus.

Most people experience their first symptoms of MS between the ages of 20 and 40; the initial symptom of MS is often blurred or double vision, red-green color distortion, or even blindness in one eye. Most MS patients experience muscle weakness in their extremities and difficulty with coordination and balance. These symptoms may be severe enough to impair walking or even standing. In the worst cases, MS can produce partial or complete paralysis. Most people with MS also exhibit paresthesias, transitory abnormal sensory feelings such as numbness, prickling, or "pins and needles" sensations. Some may also experience pain. Speech impediments, tremors, and dizziness are other frequent complaints. Occasionally, people with MS have hearing loss. Approximately half of all people with MS experience cognitive impairments such as difficulties with concentration, attention, memory, and poor judgment, but such symptoms are usually mild and are frequently overlooked. Depression is another common feature of MS.

Is there any treatment?


There is as yet no cure for MS. Many patients do well with no therapy at all, especially since many medications have serious side effects and some carry significant risks. However, three forms of beta interferon (Avonex, Betaseron, and Rebif) have now been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of relapsing-remitting MS. Beta interferon has been shown to reduce the number of exacerbations and may slow the progression of physical disability. When attacks do occur, they tend to be shorter and less severe. The FDA also has approved a synthetic form of myelin basic protein, called copolymer I (Copaxone), for the treatment of relapsing-remitting MS. Copolymer I has few side effects, and studies indicate that the agent can reduce the relapse rate by almost one third. An immunosuppressant treatment, Novantrone (mitoxantrone), is approved by the FDA for the treatment of advanced or chronic MS.

One monoclonal antibody, natalizumab (Tysabri), was shown in clinical trials to significantly reduce the frequency of attacks in people with relapsing forms of MS and was approved for marketing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2004. However, in 2005 the drug’s manufacturer voluntarily suspended marketing of the drug after several reports of significant adverse events. In 2006, the FDA again approved sale of the drug for MS but under strict treatment guidelines involving infusion centers where patients can be monitored by specially trained physicians.

While steroids do not affect the course of MS over time, they can reduce the duration and severity of attacks in some patients. Spasticity, which can occur either as a sustained stiffness caused by increased muscle tone or as spasms that come and go, is usually treated with muscle relaxants and tranquilizers such as baclofen, tizanidine, diazepam, clonazepam, and dantrolene. Physical therapy and exercise can help preserve remaining function, and patients may find that various aids -- such as foot braces, canes, and walkers -- can help them remain independent and mobile. Avoiding excessive activity and avoiding heat are probably the most important measures patients can take to counter physiological fatigue. If psychological symptoms of fatigue such as depression or apathy are evident, antidepressant medications may help. Other drugs that may reduce fatigue in some, but not all, patients include amantadine (Symmetrel), pemoline (Cylert), and the still-experimental drug aminopyridine. Although improvement of optic symptoms usually occurs even without treatment, a short course of treatment with intravenous methylprednisolone (Solu-Medrol) followed by treatment with oral steroids is sometimes used.
What is the prognosis?


A physician may diagnose MS in some patients soon after the onset of the illness. In others, however, doctors may not be able to readily identify the cause of the symptoms, leading to years of uncertainty and multiple diagnoses punctuated by baffling symptoms that mysteriously wax and wane. The vast majority of patients are mildly affected, but in the worst cases, MS can render a person unable to write, speak, or walk. MS is a disease with a natural tendency to remit spontaneously, for which there is no universally effective treatment.

What research is being done?


The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) and other institutes of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) conduct research in laboratories at the NIH and also support additional research through grants to major medical institutions across the country. Scientists continue their extensive efforts to create new and better therapies for MS. One of the most promising MS research areas involves naturally occurring antiviral proteins known as interferons. Beta interferon has been shown to reduce the number of exacerbations and may slow the progression of physical disability. When attacks do occur, they tend to be shorter and less severe. In addition, there are a number of treatments under investigation that may curtail attacks or improve function. Over a dozen clinical trials testing potential therapies are underway, and additional new treatments are being devised and tested in animal models.

In 2001, the National Academies/Institute of Medicine, a Federal technical and scientific advisory agency, prepared a strategic review of MS research. To read or download the National Academies/Institute of Medicine report, go to: "Multiple Sclerosis: Current Status and Strategies for the Future."
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/mult ... erosis.htm

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PostNapisane: 6 maja 2010, 21:06 
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The Vitamin D and Multiple Sclerosis Link - A Cure for MS
You may have heard in the news about a link between vitamin D and multiple sclerosis. This is not really news. We've known for a long time that people in parts of the world that get less sunlight (and therefore have less vitamin D) are more likely than others to get multiple sclerosis. What is new is that researchers are beginning to understand how this works on the molecular and genetic level.

Before this study, we already knew that on chromosome 6, there is a gene that plays a role in the development of multiple sclerosis. For people without a certain version of the gene, the risk for multiple sclerosis is 1 in 1000. If someone has a certain variation of that gene, the risk increases to around 1 in 300 and 1 in 100 if a person has two copies of the gene variant (see more on who gets MS?). Now, researchers understand that during fetal development and very early childhood, certain proteins that are activated by vitamin D directly interact with the gene. Lack of vitamin D causes the gene to act in a way that increases the chances of developing multiple sclerosis. In other words, the news is that researchers now understand why vitamin D seems to matter in MS.

Should I Take A Vitamin D Supplement?
There are many problems with vitamin D deficiency for anyone, not just people with multiple sclerosis. It is probably a good idea to make sure you are getting out in the sun enough (15 minutes a day, exposing your face and hands) so your body can produce enough vitamin D (read on vitamin D deficiency for more information). If you have MS and are pregnant, then you may want to talk to your doctor about a vitamin D supplement. There is a simple blood test that can be run to see if your vitamin D levels are high enough.
http://ms.about.com/b/2009/02/09/the-vi ... ms-not.htm
inne ciekawe linki do nauki:
http://www.mult-sclerosis.org/ms_link.html
http://www.jamesshuggins.com/h/ms-1/mul ... ources.htm

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PostNapisane: 14 maja 2010, 21:41 
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Important development in the treatment of multiple sclerosis reported
A major step forward, with important implications for understanding how to reduce the severity of multiple sclerosis, has been made by scientists at the University of Bristol. The results are published online today in PNAS.
Helminth Therapy - a new IBD approach (TSO) developed by Weinstock, Summers and Elliott! - www.Ovamed.org/



The team found that mice designed to express a large amount of the neuropeptide ‘galanin’ were completely resistant to the MS-like disease, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Transgenic mice that contained no galanin at all developed a more severe form of the disease.

Subsequent tests on human brain tissue affected by MS showed galanin to be specifically upregulated in MS lesions and shadow plaques, which are often seen in acute MS.

These important results suggest that galanin could have future therapeutic implications for multiple sclerosis.

Professor David Wynick who initiated the research and works on the function of galanin in the relief of neuropathic pain said: “It has been known for some time that galanin plays a protective role in both the central and peripheral nerve systems; when a nerve is injured levels of galanin increase dramatically in an attempt to limit cell death.

“When I heard that someone had shown galanin was upregulated in Alzheimer’s disease, I decided to investigate if it was also important in MS. To do this I formed a collaboration with Professors David Wraith and Neil Scolding who both work on MS.”

Wraith, who is working on a vaccine for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, investigated the MS-like disease in the various galanin transgenic mice developed in the Wynick lab.

Professor Wraith said: “The results were really remarkable: rarely do you see such a dramatic effect as this. Mice with high levels of galanin just didn’t develop any signs of disease. We have a lot more to do to figure out how this works but the results are extremely promising.”

Wynick then turned to Professor Neil Scolding who studies the use of stem cells in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Scolding provided human brain tissue affected by multiple sclerosis and, as the team predicted, galanin was also shown to be upregulated in this brain tissue.

Professor Scolding said: “The results of this research are very significant and provide new insights into how the disease might be treated”.

Although these early results are very encouraging there is still a large amount of work to be done before a drug can be developed to help MS sufferers, and it will be at least 10 years before such a drug is on the market.

Professor Wynick’s spin-out company, NeuroTargets, owns the intellectual property relating to this work and it will be seeking the substantial funding needed to advance these findings.

More information: A role for galanin in human and experimental inflammatory demyelination by David C. Wraith, Robert Pope, Helmut Butzkueven, Heidi Holderd, Penny Vanderplank, Pauline Lowrey, Michael J. Day, Andrew L. Gundlach, Trevor J. Kilpatrick, Neil Scolding and David Wynick. PNAS online, 24 August 2009.

Provided by University of Bristol
Multiple Sclerosis is a neurological condition that affects the transfer of messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body. There is currently no cure and treatment is centred on ameliorating symptoms. It is the most common neurological disorder among young adults, and affects many thousands of people in Europe.
There is hope on the horizon however. Researchers at Bristol University say that their work may – in the next ten years – lead to the development of new drugs to treat the disease. The team found that mice with higher levels of galanin, a protein within brain nerve cells, were resistant to Multiple Sclerosis. Scientists already knew that galanin plays a protective role in both the central and peripheral nerve systems – when a nerve is injured levels of galanin increase dramatically in an attempt to limit cell death. But now researchers have effectively proved that mice that were given high levels of galanin don’t develop Multiple Sclerosis. David Wynick, Professor of molecular medicine at Bristol University said: “We looked at galanin levels in a human brain from patients that had sadly died from MS and then we gave mice multiple sclerosis as well. Essentially we have shown the same thing as in Alzheimer’s disease; levels of galanin rise in plaques of brain in MS patients and we now know that that is a good thing. High levels of galanin in the mice protect completely from MS – you just cannot induce disease in them at all. In contrast, mice that had no galanin had much more severe disease that occurs earlier.” The team now hopes to produce a drug which mimics the effects of galanin and which could be used to slow down or even halt the progress of multiple sclerosis. It will take many years, but there’s hope on the horizon. For more information about MS see:

www.nationalmssociety.org
For more information about the research at Bristol see:

“www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2009/6512.html:“http://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2009/6512.html
http://www.euronews.net/2009/09/16/mult ... ture-hope/

Hopes raised for MS treatment
Scientists in Bristol claim results from a research project into multiple sclerosis (MS) could lead to treatment to reduce the severity of the disease.

The team carried out tests on mice and found those with higher levels of galanin, a protein within brain nerve cells, were resistant to MS.

Professor David Wraith at the University of Bristol said the results were "extremely promising".

The team said it could be at least 10 years before a drug is developed.

Professor David Wynick, who works on the function of galanin, set up the project with a group of other scientists working on the development of a vaccine for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

He said: "It has been known for some time that galanin plays a protective role in both the central and peripheral nerve systems - when a nerve is injured levels of galanin increase dramatically in an attempt to limit cell death."

The team discovered that mice with high levels of galanin were completely resistant to the MS-like disease, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Transgenic mice that contained no galanin at all developed a more severe form of the disease.

Subsequent tests on human brain tissue affected by MS showed galanin to be specifically increased in MS lesions and shadow plaques, which are often seen in acute MS.

MS is a neurological condition that affects the transfer of messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

It is the most common neurological disorder among young adults, affecting 85,000 people in the UK with 2,500 newly diagnosed each year.

There is no cure for MS, but drugs can be used to reduce the number and severity of relapses, and to reduce the number of new attacks.

Dr Doug Brown, research manager at the MS Society, said: "This is an early study and there's a long way to go before we understand what this means for people with MS, but any insight into how MS might be treated is valuable to researchers.

"This is worth further investigation."
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/engl ... 217972.stm


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